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This is the most popular of the opaque green stones, and the rarity of fine colored specimens makes it the most expensive of the opaque gem materials. Its pleasing color and hardness render it suitable for most articles of jewelry that are worn, and the differ­ent shades of green with which we usually associate jade harmonize well with a number of other colors.

As a gem stone, however, its finer appreciation is very limited in Western countries, and we have to turn to the East, and par­ticularly to China, in order to observe with what care and exacti­tude this stone is considered. For in China, no other stone is re­garded with so much reverence; it is of such importance that it is considered as being precious and ranking above all other stones, including the diamond. In the East, it is connected with ancient traditions and customs, and its use dates back to many centuries. In the West, it was little used until the last century, and its gen­eral popularity still varies with fashion.

Actually, the term "jade" includes two distinct types of stones, although they have some properties in common. These are jadeite, more commonly known as Chinese jade, and nephrite, which is more generally called New Zealand jade, Greenstone, or Maori Stone. Both types belong to the monoclinic system of crystalog-raphy and both are generally found in massive form, boulders, waterworn pebbles, and not as crystals. Each is characteristically green in color, although the shades of green are different. Jadeite is a pyroxene, and nephrite belongs to the amphibole or horn­blende group of minerals. They are different in chemical com­position and in many physical properties. Yet they are generally considered under the one heading of Jade.

By far the rarer of the two varieties is jadeite, which was first distinguished chemically and so named in the year 1863. It is a silicate of sodium and aluminum with some traces of other metals, particularly calcium, magnesium, iron, chromium, and manga­nese. These give the colors to the material, and although green is the predominant shade, mauve, violet, pale blue, orange, red, and yellow jadeite are found. These unusual colors are, however, usually rather pale and less definite than the greens. The fine green color is probably due to chromium; the best qualities are translucent and not opaque, and white patches, variations of color, and surface cracks should be absent.

The most expensive and rarest quality is the uniformly colored translucent green, which, when free from flaws, almost compares with the emerald for beauty. By the Chinese, who are experts in classifying jade, this green color is compared to the vivid green in a peacock's tail. All shades of green are found, however, from the apple green to the emerald green, from the greenish white to the almost white. The poorer qualities, resembling mutton fat in appearance, are of little value and attraction, and although the luster of all jades may be classed as greasy, the medium and poor qualities do not take such a high polish as the best jadeite. Un­equal color, black marks and patches, and white patches are all faults which detract from the value of a specimen.

There is not much demand for the "fancy colored" jades. Orange, red, and yellow are amongst the cheaper grades, the lighter greens with green spots or mottled markings, pea greens, and sage greens are all of a moderate value, while the grays and whites are uninteresting and worth very little. The mauves and violets, generally pale, are attractive and are moderately costly, but none approaches the deep, translucent green in beauty, rarity, and value. Fifty-six thousand dollars (£20,000) has been paid in the United States for a string of jade containing only 125 plain round beads. This necklace was 30 inches long and weighed 304 carats, the center bead being only half an inch in diameter. And this necklace had no carved work on it, nor was it of any antiquity. At an auction sale in London during November, 1935, an oval jade bowl of a fine, emerald green color, 7 1/2 inches long by 5 1/4 inches high, was sold for $3,360 (£1200). Jadeite, therefore, might well be regarded as "precious," for it possesses all the necessary qualities of rarity, beauty, and durability, apart from high com­mercial value.

The hardness of jadeite is deceiving. Although only 6 1/2 to 7 on the scale of hardness, its structure is of a compact, fibrous nature which renders it exceedingly tough. This toughness, which is one of its remarkable qualities, makes cutting and carving ex­ceedingly difficult, and practically no work on jade is carried on by Western lapidaries. The experience gained over a number of centuries has made the Chinese experts in jade. When mined, large pieces are difficult to break, and since they must be trans­ported, cleavage is effected by applying heat and then suddenly cooling by immersion in water. A pressure of about 50 tons is required to crush one cubic inch of this material.

The fracture of jadeite is splintery, but except in thin pieces, it is not easily broken. The peculiar structure may be the reason for the good polish which may be obtained, despite the greasy luster which is so obvious in all the cheaper grades. Specific gravity is 3.44, and refraction is double, giving the constants 1.66 -1.68. Although a hard, tough, and compact stone, jadeite fuses before the blow-pipe and colors the flame a bright yellow.

If suitably cut, some jades possess the property of emitting a very clear musical tone when struck, and the vibrations continue for some time. This property, which the Chinese appreciate very keenly, has led to the stone being used in the capacity of sounding plates and tubes. But pieces used in jewelry are either plain cabochon cut, or carved, all shapes being seen. Faceted forms are never used.

Although the rough stone is mostly found in Upper Burma, the land the Chinese call Yuthian (the jade country), China is the home of jadeite. It has always been regarded there of great importance for, apart from its use in jewelry and ornament, it had, for many centuries, its uses in ceremonial and religious rites, as well as in ordinary domestic and official life. Definite shapes and colors each had special significance, and very early examples dating back to before the Christian era are still in existence. Axe heads and knives made entirely from jadeite were also used in still earlier days during a period which dates back to at least 3000 B.C. Such early specimens show subtle graduations of color and surface quality, with a simple form devoid of decoration.

It was therefore not only the beauty of jade which attracted the Chinese; the imperishability of the stone was, and is, to them an outstanding quality since religious and civil ceremonies are all attended by the wearing of certain jade objects. In fact, as far back as the dynasty of Tcheon (1134 B.C.), a special keeper of jade was appointed by the Emperor. The use of the material showed that the early Chinese were undoubtedly great artists. Their skill in the working of this stone is still unsurpassed, even though European lapidaries have available all modern tools and machinery which the Eastern lapidaries never use.

It is quite certain that small quantities of rough jadeite were sent from Burma to China at irregular intervals throughout many centuries, but owing to continual warfare between the two peo­ples, the long and arduous journeys which must have been re­quired to bring the stone from the mountainous country to China, and the primitive methods employed, the trade must have been carried on with much difficulty. It was not until after the year 1744, when hostilities between the two countries ceased, that a more regular supply was obtained. The chief sellers of the stone are the Kachins, a wild tribe of northern Burma. Payment was always made in the form of large discs of silver until about the year 1874, when the rupee was recognized.

The Kachin Hills in Upper Burma is the chief locality where jadeite is found, and here it occurs in a series of dykes of meta­morphosed rock, the deposits being from five to seven feet in thickness, and about 20 feet in width. The chief dyke worked in recent years is the Tawmaw in the Uru valley, which extends for many miles through crystalline schists and other rocks. The min­eral is extracted by sinking shafts and then driving across the dyke itself.

When found as large boulders in a conglomerate (and these boulders sometimes reach the weight of 10 cwts.), the stone is worked by open quarrying, and such deposits exist over a wide area. Some are found in the Uru River, from where many are picked out for cutting. The villages of Kansi, Hwehki, Lonkin. and Mawkalon are the chief centers of such workings. Before the jade is allowed to leave the mining districts, a tax of about 10 per cent is paid to the local Kachin chiefs, and then it is carried down to Mogaung, where another tax of 33% per cent is levied by the Government. From there, it is taken to Mandalay where some is worked, but the bulk continues its way to Rangoon and from thence to Hong Kong, Canton, and other Chinese centers. Jade beads is the chief finished article that Mandalay produces from the rough stone.

Although so intimately connected with China, jadeite in the rough is found in very small quantities in that country itself. Some material comes from the Chinese provinces of Shensi and Yunnan, but by far the majority originates in Upper Burma and Tibet, as already mentioned. At present, the three chief mining centers in Burma are Tawmaw, Hweka, and Mamoa, where the Chinese normally have their own buyers in attendance. The mines are leased to Chinese traders through a Kachin chief, although local labor is employed. The active mining period is from March to May inclusive, rains and fever stopping work during the re­mainder of the year. It is not until January that the laborers com­mence to bale out the water from the mines and renew the wooden props. Now, steam pumps are also used as well as the usual bam­boo pump.

The annual export value of jadeite from these mines averaged nearly $126,000 (£45,000) between the years 1898 and 1903, but almost continuous disturbances in China for many years since have resulted in a decline in the import of the stone. In 1932, some 3026 cwts of jadeite was produced by Burma, but good rough material seems to be getting scarce and its price is consequently rising.

The principal jade cutting centers in China are Canton, Pekin, Soochow, and Shanghai. The rough is sold by auction, and the market in Canton is usually open for selling once only in the year. Each rough piece is numbered, and in order to give prospec­tive purchasers an opportunity of judging the internal color, a small outer portion is polished. Despite this, judgment remains difficult, for a large block of stone will quite likely vary in color and internal flaws may also be present. Moreover, the rough stone is often covered by a thin skin due to surface weathering. But anyone may purchase the rough, although the majority of those usually present are dealers who subsequently will have the stones cut into various articles of jewelry by contract. The material for miction may be inspected on the day before the sale only.

According to the usual custom in China, bidding is secret. The auctioneer, attired in a long robe with wide sleeves, receives bids from the merchants not by word of mouth but by having his hand grasped in a certain way. He seems to have no difficulty in remembering individual bids as well as the different lots, and when he considers that a certain bid is sufficiently high, he an­nounces the name of the buyer. When a particularly good piece of stone is being auctioned, he is the receiver of many frantic bids, for each merchant wishes to bid first. Selling prices are, however, subject to reserve prices of the importing firms.

Canton handles the best quality of jadeite, and normally about 10,000 people are constantly engaged in the jade industry in that city alone. Firms specialize in one quality and one color of stone; they seldom handle other qualities. The workers are roughly divided into four classes, and the most skilled, who are engaged on intricate carvings, are the most highly paid.

Shanghai and Soochow work the whiter jades, and bracelets, buckles, vases, incense burners, and artificial flowers are made there. Many women and children are employed. Simple tools are used, and a system of weighing the rough stone and then the finished articles obviates any tendency towards dishonesty. The contractor owns the workshop and the tools, and the workers are paid by him in the proportion of 40 per cent of the value of the work. Food and lodging, such as it is, is provided by the contractor, and the average wage of a carver used to be about 15 cents a day. Apprentices worked about three and a half years without salary, except for a small amount three times yearly (festival days).

Mechanical tools for working are generally despised by the Chinese and they are seldom used. The cutting, drilling, carving and polishing therefore take a considerable time, a single piece frequently involving weeks of work. Necklaces, pendants, carved figures, as well as a large variety of ornamental pieces are fashioned, but on account of the inherent love of the Chinese for jade, the best specimens never leave the country.

The Chinese lapidaries use iron tools, and coarse sand as an abrasive. Quartz crystals, almandine garnets, powdered corundum (emery), and ruby crystals are also used. The rough block of stone is first sawn with a toothless iron saw, worked by two men. This saw is often made of fine, twisted wires, stretched on a wooden bow, and fed with Carborundum powder. By such means, it may take the two men several days to cut through an average size boulder. Next, it is roughly shaped by a circular saw, which con­sists of a series of round iron discs with sharp cutting edges. This saw is worked vertically by means of a treadle. Further grinding by a set of small solid iron rings follows, after which the stone is ready to be carved and drilled. Polishing is carried out by the use of small wheels.

Drills and saws are operated by a simple lathe for the most part, and the smaller cutting wheels and drills are worked by the primitive bow method. The saws are often merely a piece of wire, strung on to a wooden bow, and worked with the aid of wet sand. Specially shaped drills for cutting such articles as bangles and Creole earrings are necessary, but time being of little concern to the Chinese, innumerable drills are made as occasion demands.

Designs which involve drilling are commenced by a diamond drill, and through the holes so made, a wire saw is inserted. Polishing tools are made of hard wood, dried gourd skin, and ox leather, and they are coated with fine sand or a ruby dust paste. Large surfaces are polished by a graduated series of revolving wooden wheels, while wooden plugs and cylinders of various shapes and sizes are used for smaller work. The wheels which give the final polishing are bound with ox leather, stitched to­gether with hempen thread. The carving and polishing wheels are both operated by two pedals which, pressed alternately, cause them to revolve in opposite directions.

Many Chinese carvings in hard stone are a source of wonder to the Western mind, and not the least remarkable is the snuff bottle, of which various examples in jade, as well as in rock crystal, amber, garnet, and tourmaline, are common. When carving the bottle, the outside is first shaped and any possible imperfections in the stone which may be present are carefully hidden or cut out by carving. Then a circular hole is drilled through the center of the neck, and through this hole various shaped soft iron wire tools are inserted. These scrapers are revolved at high speed, sand and water aiding the abrasion. A very fine grade of sand is used in finishing. Electrical power to drive the various wheels which are used in jade working has been tried, but it has been found unsuitable for the carefully regulated handwork which is neces­sary.

Much of the jade which reaches Europe is sent through various importing houses, and strangers would find it difficult to purchase directly from the cutters. In China, regular fairs are held at various temples according to the lunar calendar. Here, booths are erected, and jade may be bought by the foreigner as well as by the Chinese. Tourists often obtain the services of a guide, and by this means

they are sometimes able to buy at a reasonable price. Buddhas, flowers, necklaces, and pendants are offered for sale, and these may be obtained by the usual method of bargaining so beloved in the East. Every color of jade has a separate price and name in China, and a number of definite varieties are recognized by the local dealers. Among these, we may mention Mja Yay, the uniform grass green, translucent jade, and the most costly quality of all; Shwelu, which is light green in color, spotted or streaked; Lat Yay, clouded material, chiefly used for making buttons, pins, etc.; Hmaw Sit Sit, dark green and soft; Kimpi, red or brown in color; Kyauk-atha, white and translucent; Pantha, also white and trans­lucent, and Kyauk-am, which is almost black.

The finest jades are considered as precious stones by the Chin­ese, their word Yu meaning both "precious stone" and "jade." In earlier days, the material was used for the fashioning of imple­ments and ornamental objects of various kinds, and many such pieces have been unearthed in various parts of the world. Carved and polished figures have been found in ancient Mexican tombs. In the year 1900, thousands of pieces were discovered on the site of an old temple in Mexico City, while a small nephrite statue, the earliest dated Maya object yet found, was discovered in the State of Vera Cruz. This statue bears a date in Mayan chronology which approximates to 100 B.C. Another similar object, in jadeite, found in Guatemala, dates back to about 50 A.D.

It is often suggested that the chalchituitl of the Aztecs was jadeite, derived from now unknown local sources. But whatever it was, the Aztecs prized it greatly, although their reverence for it was probably due to the fact that they were able to make excel­lent war weapons from this material. It is generally thought that the elaborate buckle which fastened the imperial robe of Monte­zuma was made from jadeite, but it has not yet been explained how these old jades came to Mexico, since no rough of this stone has been found there.

The antiquity of jade in China is of considerable interest, for it is bound up not only with many of this people's superstitions but also with their national customs, religion, and beliefs. The stone played an important part in Chinese life for nearly four thousand years before its name or appearance was known in Eng land. Tradition relates that it was introduced from America by Sir Walter Raleigh, and it was then regarded in the nature of a medicinal stone, the Spaniards no doubt originating this belief.

The feeling of reverence and appreciation which the Chinese hold for jade is one of their characteristics; they even hold a piece in the hand and rub it if they have anything of importance to discuss, while thousands wear a piece as an amulet. This is one of the reasons why the finest specimens never leave China.

With the exception of very small pieces, there are no two carv­ings exactly alike of all the thousands that appear on the market. Each piece has been individually studied by the artist and expert, who has decided how best the given piece of rough may be used. Each finished piece is therefore unique.

The earliest carvings are plain and often geometrical in shape; they are mostly undecorated and not even etched. Later, motives were taken from nature, and symbols of the sun, moon, constella­tions, clouds and rivers appeared. Then we have dragons, oxen, rams, and horses, all of which were bound up with Chinese be­liefs in the cosmic forces. The Chinese ideas of astronomy and re­ligion are largely known by their jade carvings, and this exceed­ingly interesting subject can be understood only if the history of this race be examined.

Cups and vases of jade were used long before porcelain was in common use. And long after, ink stands, incense holders, paper weights, seals, tobacco jars, snuff boxes, flower vases, and other objects were made from jade since it lent itself most suitably to the Chinese character. Its vague translucency, its susceptability to intricate and patient workmanship, its agreeable sensation to the touch, and its resistance to the ravages of time and climate all helped to make the stone precious to the imaginative and sensu­ous Chinese. In it, they expressed their fine sensations, their graceful thoughts, and their delicate impressions. It is quite com­mon to see a variety of forms borrowed from the animal and vegetable kingdom carved in jade, as we have already mentioned. The fantastic dragon, the lotus leaf, the mimosa, and the magnolia are usual examples, and such carvings are generally executed with oriental patience, skill, and exactitude. Various fine examples of workmanship exist, a notable specimen being a book composed of thin leaves of jade, the words being carved out of gold.

Perhaps the most valuable collection of jade is that in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. This was collected by Mr. Heber R. Bishop, who also made an exhaustive study of ancient jades, and his catalogue of this collection, which includes details of other hard stones, published in 1906, is a wonderful work. The British Museum, the Louvre, the Metropolitan Mu seum, the American Museum of Natural History and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also house fine collections of jade, while the Johnson Collection in Philadelphia is well known.

We will now pass on to the other mineral which is included in the general term of jade. Nephrite, chemically a variety of actinolite, is a silicate of magnesium and calcium, iron often be­ing included in its composition. Its color is generally a dark green, somewhat denser and more opaque looking than jadeite. Cut pieces are usually homogeneous in color, although shades vary to an almost white. Both nephrite and jadeite are character­istically green in color, but it is very rarely that one accustomed to handling gem stones will confuse the two. Commercially, nephrite is of much less value and it is certainly less attractive.

In many respects, nephrite, or New Zealand jade as it is gen­erally called, is very similar to jadeite. It is found in compact, fibrous masses, and its luster is glistening, but it does not take such a high polish as Chinese jade. Hardness is also lower, being about 6i/£, while specific gravity is about 3—perhaps 2.9 to 3.1. Double refraction gives readings of 1.60-1.63. It  has a decided splintery fracture and is very hard to cut. Its different physical constants will easily distinguish it from Chinese jade, although intricately carved pieces may be difficult to differentiate at a first glance.

Nephrite is not a popular stone and is probably seen more in New Zealand than elsewhere, being a stone of much local antiq­uity and interest. Here, it is found as rolled pebbles and also in schists and in serpentine. It is found in other parts of the world, but its connection with New Zealand and the original inhabi­tants of those islands has caused it to be usually named New Zealand jade, or greenstone.

The Maoris of New Zealand, a race now almost extinct, re­garded nephrite as a most valuable stone since it served both as a material from which weapons and tools could be fashioned as well as an ornamental stone. The Maoris knew greenstone under the name of pounamu, this term begin derived from the Tahi-tian namu, meaning "green," and the Maori pou, meaning "stone."

In this locality, the stone seems to have been first discovered on the west coast of South Island, and it is known to have been in general use there from about the year 1700 A.D. Evidence also points to the fact that it was known to the natives much earlier, probably in the Fifteenth Century. When it was found that this material was hard and most suitable for battle axes, it was labori­ously fashioned. No doubt the river beds were searched for the greenish pebbles, for here they were more easily found than in rocks such as schists and serpentine.

The stone was ground by hand with pieces of rough sandstone, and then sawn by rubbing edges of one slab with another, water being allowed to drop continuously but slowly from a calabash hung above the stone. Sand was also dropped into the groove to help the cutting, and it may be imagined that considerable time and labor were involved by such methods.

The only mechanical appliance used by the natives was the tuwiri, a drill roughly constructed from a stick of wood about two feet long and three-quarters of an inch thick, at the end of which was fastened a piece of obsidian or flint. This rod passed through a disc made from a heavy wood; another shaped cross-piece was passed over but above the disc, and plaited fiber cords were fastened from each end of this crosspiece to the top of the rod in such a way that the cord was twisted when the crosspiece was rotated. Hand pressure on the flat disc caused the cord to untwist, thus operating the drill. Sand and water were used to increase the cutting power of the boring point, and in this way, the required shaped stones for weapons were made.

War adzes were fashioned only by the native chiefs. These adzes (toki) were of various sizes and kinds, each having a partic­ular name. The mere, or war club, was the principal emblem of chieftainship, and this weapon usually took years to fashion. It was always considered in the nature of an heirloom, and the luck of the tribe was bound up with certain meres. Other axes and tools were fashioned for the use of tree felling, wood carving, and for the construction of canoes.

The neck ornaments (hei-tiki) were in common use, the custom probably having been introduced to New Zealand by immigrants from Hawaii, for Captain Cook remarked upon their general use by the natives. These greenstone tikis were not worn from any reli­gious reason as were the jadeite pendants of the Chinese, but only in memory of deceased relatives and friends. The genuine tiki was carved from one piece of stone varying from two inches to eight inches in length, the front of the pendant showing a rough representation of a face, or a neck, arm, leg, or body. The reverse side was nearly always plain, and the hole drilled for suspending the ornament was generally near the top.

Old and good specimens of tikis, as well as other genuine old greenstone ornaments, are now rare in New Zealand, for many have been taken from that country. Some good pieces may be seen in the British Museum, while others are in private collec­tions. Copies of tikis abound, many thousands having been made and exported by the Germans. The mining and working of neph­rite in New Zealand is now almost a thing of the past. Few New Zealanders wear the stone, and most of the finished articles of jewelry in this material which one sees have been fashioned in Europe expressly for the tourist trade.

The rough is still found in New Zealand, but it is now little mined. Eastern Turkestan supplies only a few stones now, the Kuen Lun mountains being nearly exhausted of the rough ma­terial. Here, it was once found in layers of great thickness, asso­ciated with gneiss. Most of the material from this area finds its way to China, where it is carved into ornaments and then ex­ported. Not much is used or worn in China.

Nephrite is also found in Siberia, large boulders in alluvial deposits being common in some districts. Recently discovered deposits are situated in the Lytton area of British Columbia, while some material is being mined near Jordansmuhl in Silesia. Other deposits may have existed in former years, for ancient axe heads of nephrite have been found in many widely scattered lands, in the Swiss Lake Habitations, New Guinea, Guatemala, Venezuela, Costa Rica, and in other South American states, as well as in Wyoming, Alaska and California. It would be inter­esting to know the origin of such weapons, for no rough material of this nature has yet been mined in many of these localities.

A large mass of rough nephrite may be seen in the Metropoli­tan Museum of New York. It was presented by Mr. H. R. Bishop. The term jade is a corrupted form of the French word for this stone which, in turn, comes from the Spanish jada, meaning "colic stone." It was long believed that jade was a cure for colic, hence the origin of the name.

Many imitations of jade are to be seen, and at least one is very similar in color and texture superficially. This is the colored green glass, generally carved, which originates from Czechoslo­vakia, and it looks very much like translucent, good quality jade-ite. It is often mounted in cheap rings and pendants. But apart from the imitations, there are a few real stones which may be sold as a kind of jade but which really have no relation to the true jade at all. Among these may be mentioned Styrian jade, South African jade, and Transvaal jade. Green fluorspar sometimes

looks like jade, especially when carved in China, but it is a much softer stone. Smaragdite, a variety of hornblende, resembles neph­rite in color, as does also plasma. Plasma is a type of opaque green quartz (silica), while smaragdite is a silicate of magnesium and calcium, with varying amounts of aluminum and iron. Ordinary-hornblende, which is usually black in color, is not used in jew­elry.

Styrian jade has been marketed in recent years, but more often in the form of cups, bowls, and larger ornaments. Its color ranges from a gray-green to almost black, and it often has moss-like in­clusions. It is really the commercial name for the mineral pseudo-phite, a hydrated silicate of aluminum and magnesium. "Styrian jade" would apparently have a greater attraction to the general public than would the proper term "pseudophite." The latter term, as might be surmised, refers to its crystal habit. Although of the monoclinic system, it displays pseudo rhombohedra. It occurs in massive formation and belongs to the chlorite group of minerals, being closely related to the ordinary serpentine.

Although its luster is greasy, rather similar to poor quality jades, it is much softer, hardness being about 2 1/2. Specific gravity is 2.60 to 2.85, and refractive indices 1.57-1.60. The rough stone is mined in Styria, near Kranbat, and also in Switzerland, Nor­way, Sweden, Italy, and the Tyrol.

South African jade and Transvaal jade are the same stone, neither being a jade but merely a grossular garnet. The color is green, often spoiled by small black spots. This stone, also some­times reddish-green in color, is found in masses in the Transvaal, and it is cut in Germany into beads and larger decorative pieces. Hardness approaches real jade, this being 6 1/2 to 7. Specific grav­ity varies from 3.42 to 3.72, and the single refractive index is 1.73.

The popularity of jade varies, but there is always a market for fine specimens. Of the opaque stones in green, it is certainly the most attractive, and it deservedly has its admirers in every land outside China, where it is regarded as much more than merely a precious stone. The many qualities and variations of shades have led connoisseurs to collect ranges of specimens, and only those who constantly handle and compare jades can best appreci­ate its unique beauty.